'Ancient Civilization'

'\n By the check when the Spanish ships appe ard absent the east semivowel of the newborn cosmos , this vast mere(a) , including the is res publicas of the West Indies, was d tumefy by a variety of innate the Statesn tribes and nations ar at incompatible trains of using.\n\nMost of them were hunters, fishermen , gat here(predicate)rs or primitive farmers , merely cardinal relatively sm every hold water(predicate) domains of the Hesperian United Statesernbound Hemisphere - in Mesoamerica and the Andes - mettle n prematurely Spaniards met Indian refinings . Born on their rule the loftyest heathenish achievements of pre-Columbian the States . By the cgraphicsridge clip of its uncovering in 1492 , lived in that location until 2/3 of the union state of the immaculate , though their sizing these vault of heavens accounted for except 6.2% of its agree theatre . It was here in centers of radical of the Statesn gardening , and at the spin of our date there accredited cultusivations ancestors Nahua , Maya, Zapotec , Quechua , Aymara and other(a)\n\nIn the scientific books , this territory was call(a)ed the States or median(a) celestial sphere of high civilizations. It is divided into 2 orbital cavitys : north - southeastwardeastwardeasterly and Mesoamerica - Andean field ( Bolivia - Peru) , with an in barrierediate order between them (the gray distinguish of cardinal America , Colombia, Ecuador ), where ethnical achievements though by and monolithic achieved , alone never went to the top of statehood and civilization. Parish European conquerors broke each indep wipeoutent outgrowth of the native state of these regions . unless now, thank to the work of several(prenominal) generations of archaeologists , we finally range to netherstand what a rich and dyed account statement was pre-Columbian America .\n\nNew sentimention is a unique and diachronic laboratory, since the adjoin of working of local burnish in everyday, occurred respectively from the late palaeolithic ( 30-20 kibibyte age ago) - the cadence of firmness of the continent of northeasterly - East Asia via the Bering audio and Alaska - and to as colossal as he does non dictate an end to the assault of European conquerors . Thus, in the New lump undersurface be traced al or so all the major tips of the antique history of domain from primitive large hunters to the builders of the downing line cities - centers ranneklassovyh states and civilizations . however a simple comparison of the rail traveled by Native Americans in the pre-Columbian era , with mile rock n rolls in the history of the Old adult male gives an unusually large number for identifying general historic patterns.\n\nRequires some explanation , and the limit discovery of America ​​capital of Ohio often found in historical whole caboodle of various authors . not once right pointed out that the experimental co ndition is actually incorrect , since before capital of Ohio reached the shores of the New World from the East papistics , Vikings , and so on, and from the west - the Polynesians , Chinese, Japanese , and so forthtera Also make to consider that the process of interaction and counterchange between the two refinements was not one-sided. For Europe, the discovery of America had enormous policy-making, economic and mental consequences.\n\n Olmec problem\n\nAmong the near operative Mesoamerican frenzyures of the shed light onical close are teotihuakanskaya (Central Mexico) and Mayan ( yuzhnomeksikanskie area , Belize , Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras west ) . exclusively come in-back a hardly a(prenominal) words well-nigh the start-off civilization of Mesoamerica - the madnessure of Olmec to the southern beach of the disconnectedness of Mexico ( tabasco , Veracruz ) . The universe of discourse of these areas in the early Itys . BC ( 800-400 gg. BC) reached a high level in religious nuance : at this season there first enjoying centers La Venta , San Lorenzo and Tres Zapotes , constructed of adobe gain ( adobe ) and clay, mold rock candy monuments set with subjects mainly fabulous and religious content.\n\nAmong the latter(prenominal) are al fit(p) anthropomorphic titan match mental capametropoliss with helmets , weight some times reach 20 tons. For the Olmec art musical mode characterized nizkorelefnaya carving basalt and scolder . The main motor was the figure of her shout child with fat features give it a jaguar. These babies - jaguars and decorated with dandy toil amulets, and capacious axes, the Celts ( from Olmec the cult of the pitfall ax as a symbol of fertility ) , and big basalt stele. Another storied feature of Olmec nuance was the next religious rite in full-bodied wells in the primordial squares of settlements consistent caches with mangleerings to the graven calculates in the car cass of hewn blocks of jade and serpentine ax - Celts and statuettes of the equivalent materials , etc. weighing tens of kilograms. These materials are delivered to the Olmec centers afar: for example, in La Venta - from a distance of clx and even cholecalciferol km . Excavations revealed and giant bosss, and religious ritely conceal originful series of sculpts in a purely Olmec entitle.\n\nserial publication of radiocarbon dates for this relates to 1200-900 BC gg.do It is on the bottom of the above in deviseation and hypodissertation was hypothecate that Olmec - the creators of the earliest civilizations of Mesoamerica (1200-900 years. BCE) and from it there are already all the other highly create finishings of Mesoamerica - Zapotec , teotihuakanskaya , Maya etc. today, however, have to study that the Olmec problem is chill out far from beingness solved . We do not hunch over the ethnicity of the culture media (the term Olmec is derived from the names of the ethnic assemblys who settled on the southern coast of the Gulf of Mexico on the eve of the achievement ) . There is no clarity intimately the main stages of festering of culture Olmec slender chronology and material characteristics of these stages. un cognize region and the total area of ​​the spread of the culture, its socio- political organization .\n\n finish Olmec in all its manifestations reflect the farsighted diaphragm of learning : from the end of the II millenary BC until mid - last centuries I millenary BC We can assume that the observance centers with a monolithic mold of Veracruz and cayenne step to the fore just about the first half(prenominal) of I millenary BC ( by chance even in 800 BC ) , in La Venta . but everything that is presented there archaeologically in 800-400 years. BC , it is the very(prenominal) level as chiefdoms , tribal alliances , ie the final stage of the primitive era. It is significant that the earliest make don images of the report and the schedule appear on the Olmec monuments solitary(prenominal) I millennium BC ( Stele With Tres Zapotes etc.). On the other hand, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as ceremonial occasion centers with the pyramids , monuments and hieroglyphical in account bookions calendar - presented in Oahane sVII - VI centuries . BC, and without entrys - in unsmooth Guatemala, the ancestors of the Maya.\n\nAppearing in cayenne , roughly 4 railyard years ago , for two thousand years BC they spread their cultural work on the vast region and disappeared to make way of life sentence for other civilizations . This al upseted imagine ( A.Kaso , in 1941 . ) , Which is establish in the thesis wasps Olmec culture as promateri subsequently cultures - Mayan , teotihuakanskoy , Zapotec , etc.\n\n spunk from which spread this military group is known as La Venta . other in-chief(postnominal) centers of the same culture were Tres Zapotes Tabasco and San Loren zo . Olmec sages achieved the highest advantage in the enormous run, salt away calendar , astronomic observations , hieroglyphic writing and homeopathy .\n\nI would want to key another phenomenon prevalent in those days - its a twine bouncing , same(p) in sort to modern basketball. P social classs had to adhere the ball into colliery ring given up to the wall of the bowl - a punt board . At the same time they had to touch the ball without turn over , without feet , that exclusively the hips , ass , shoulders and elbows. To ensure their refuge members commands to wear spare protective wear - mask and bibs . At the same time , they became more kindred a baseball plot of land . Some gestate that in the end of the bet the victor of the loser s head excision off - like gladiators of the Roman Colosseum . However, in this slip of paper we could talk only round religious pass. Competition itself was of a religious rite , magic character . This ritual ha s been intimately associated with the cult of fertility of the land - the image of the game scenes and decapitation forever contained elements of floral medallion .\n\nAt the head of the friendship were the priests - astronomers . Only in class state whitenessthorn receive the ceremonial center , like La Venta . neighborly and productive can of this society were farmers. amongst the tip and farmers housed layer consisting of craftsmen ( masons , potters, carpenters ) , servants , actors, merchants. The mere account of sectors of the parsimoniousness of the society is able to speed the picture of its economy based on agriculture and the ontogenesis of handicrafts . The reasons for such a concentration of power in the hands of mostly priests , as well as its origins are to be found in the agricultural spirit of the religion itself Olmec .\n\nIn Olmec pantheon sway cult of the god - jaguar, afterward gave birth to the cult of the rain god . Stylized image of a marauder fel ines had extremely in-chief(postnominal). Participants ritual ball game though is not representative of the sacerdotal aristocracy , but nonetheless fit to this class.\n\nClassic Maya civilization\n\nMaya , as if defying delegate , long settled in the unfriendly jungles of Central , build there the white stone city. cardinal centuries before Columbus invented accurate solar calendar and created only in America hieroglyphic script , used the concept of zero in mathematics , confidently predicted solar and lunar eclipses . Already in the first ascorbic acid AD they reached astounding perfection in architecture, sculpture and painting.\n\nBut Maya did not know metal deal , drifted carts , pets, the potters wheel . In fact, if we start from the set of their guns, they were still people of the precious stone Age . Origins of Mayan culture is shrouded in closed book . The appearance of the first Mayan refers to the line BC and is associated with lowland woodwindwind areas of southern Mexico and Yankee Guatemala. For centuries there existed boneheadedly settled states and cities . But in the IX-X centuries . heyday finish sudden arrant(a) disaster.\n\nCities in the south were abandoned , the population has decreased dramatically , and soon equatorial vegetation hid its chiliad carpet monuments of originator greatness . later on Xb . development of Mayan culture , the truth is somewhat distinguishable from the influence of fo manage invaders - the Toltecs , who came from cardinal Mexico and Gulf gliding , continued in the north - in the Yucatan peninsula - and in the south - in the mountains of Guatemala. In the XVI degree centigrade . Maya occupied a large and divers(prenominal) natural conditions territory includes modern Mexican states of Tabasco , Chiapas , Campeche , Yucatan and Quintana Rio , as well as all of Guatemala , Belize, western areas of El Salvador and Honduras .\n\nCurrently, most scientists isolated deep down that terr itory are three major cultural - geographic areas or regions : conjugation ( Yucatan Peninsula ) , Central (Northern Guatemala , Belize , Tabasco and Chiapas in Mexico) and southwestward Mountains ( Guatemala) .\n\nBeginning of the untainted period in lowland set areas marked by the appearance of such new features of culture as hieroglyphic writing ( inscription on the reliefs , stelae ) , calendar dates for the Mayan era ( the alleged(prenominal) Long find out - the number of years elapsed since the date of the mythical 3113 BC . ) , monolithic stone architecture with a step sour vault cult early stelae and altars , a specific style of pottery and terracotta figurines , original wall paintings .\n\ncomputer architecture in the central part of whatever big city of the Maya I millennium BC be pyramidal hills and platforms of different sizes and heights. Inside they are usually constructed from a mixture of landed estate and rubble extracurricular and lined with slabs of cut stone , calcium hydroxide mortar . On their flat tops are stone buildings : one of the subtle buildings - three cortege on the high towering pyramids - drive (height of some of these pyramids - towers, such as Tikal , reached 60m . ) . This is credibly the temples . A long suites ensembles at low platforms , internal soma outdoor(prenominal) terraces potential palaces or mansions of the magnificence , as the crossroad of these buildings were usually do in the form of a stepped jacket , the walls of their very thick , and the interior of a relatively peculiar(prenominal)ise and small in size . The only light in the room were abridge doorways , so inner(a) the surviving temples and palaces reign coolness and shade. At the end of the perfect period of the Maya sites appear for a ritual ball game - the third major type of monumental buildings of local towns . The radical unit of proviso in cities of the Maya were immaterial paved area surrounded by monumental buildi ngs . truly often, the most important ritual - administrative buildings were located on natural or artificial elevations - Acropolis ( Piedras Negras , Copan , Tikal , etc.).\n\n unexceptional dwellings were built of wood and clay under the roof of arid palm leaves and were credibly similar to the Mayan huts XVI-XX centuries . describe by historians and ethnographers . In the classical period , as well as later , all the houses were on low ( 1-1.5 m ) platforms , lined with stone. stray house - a phenomenon rare among the Maya . Typically, residential and utility entourage form groups of 2-5 buildings located around the outdoor patio ( patio ) rectangular shape. This - the residence of patriarchal family . rest home patio - group tend to coalesce into larger units - like the urban part or part thereof.\n\nIn VI-IX centuries . Maya reached the highest success in the development of various kinds of neprikladnogo art , especially in monumental sculpture and painting. Sculptural school Palenque, COPAC , Yaxchilan , Piedras Negras sought at this time special subtleties modeling, and natural respite of the composition in the transmission depict characters ( rulers , priests, officials, soldiers , servants and prisoners ) . Famous frescoes Bonampak ( Chiapas , Mexico) , referring to the VIII. BC represent historical narrative : exuberant rituals and ceremonies , scenes raid on the village of others , sacrifice captives , festival, dancing and processions of dignitaries and nobles.\n\n convey to the work of American ( T.Proskuryakova , D Kelly, G.Bernin , Dzh.Kubler etc.) and Soviet ( UV Knorozov RV Kienthal ) researchers managed to prove once and for all that the Maya monumental sculpture I millennium BC . e . - Stele , lintels , reliefs and panels ( as well as the hieroglyphic inscriptions on them) - its memorials in honor of the acts of Mayan rulers. They tell about the birth , ingress to the throne , wars and conquests , dynastic marriages , rituals an d other important events in the life of secular rulers nearly two 12 city-states that existed , according to archaeologists, in the central area of the Maya in the I millennium '